Ethical theories give us structured ways to think about moral choices, explain our actions, and figure out what is right and wrong. Philosophers have come up with a lot of different ways to think about morality over the years. These include rules and duties, consequences, character, relationships, and divine commands. This essay looks at the main ethical theories, the people who support them, and the philosophical differences that set them apart.
- Ethics Based on Duty
Deontological ethics, which comes from the Greek word deon, which means “duty,” says that the morality of an action depends on whether it follows a rule or duty, not on what happens as a result. The main point is that some actions are morally required, allowed, or not allowed based on their inherent qualities, not their results.
The Categorical Imperative by Immanuel Kant
Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), a key figure in deontology, came up with the categorical imperative, which is a rule that can be used to figure out what is right and wrong for everyone. One important way to say it is:
“Act only in line with that principle that you can also want it to become a universal law.”
Kant stressed the importance of rational autonomy and the inherent worth of each person. He said that morality is based on reason and applies to everyone, not just to people’s wants and needs.
Rights and Duties
In deontology, duties are things we have to do, and rights are the protections or entitlements that come from those duties. The duty not to kill is an example of the right to life. A big part of Kantian ethics is treating people as ends in themselves, not just as means.
Morality Based on Rules
Deontology supports morality based on rules: actions are right if they follow moral rules, no matter what the outcome. This sets it apart from consequentialist theories like utilitarianism. Some people say that following rules too strictly can lead to morally bad results, like telling the truth even if it hurts someone.
- The use of utilitarianism
Utilitarianism is a type of consequentialism, which says that the moral value of an action depends on what happens as a result. The greatest happiness principle is its main idea: actions are right if they make the most people happy.
Hedonistic Utilitarianism by Jeremy Bentham
Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832), who started utilitarianism, came up with hedonistic utilitarianism, which says that pleasure and pain are the only good and bad things in themselves. He came up with the hedonic calculus, which is a way to figure out the moral value of actions based on things like how strong, how long, and how sure the pleasure or pain will be.
John Stuart Mill: Act vs. Rule Utilitarianism
John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) improved on Bentham’s ideas by stressing the differences in the quality of pleasures (for example, intellectual pleasures are better than bodily ones).
He made a difference:
Act utilitarianism looks at the effects of each action to see if it is right or wrong.
Rule utilitarianism says that rules that, if everyone follows them, will make the most people happy (for example, “Do not lie” is a good rule even if lying once might make things better).
Mill also defended people’s freedom, saying that utilitarianism supports people’s freedom as long as what they do doesn’t hurt anyone else.
Preference Utilitarianism (Peter Singer)
Peter Singer, a modern philosopher, came up with preference utilitarianism, which says that meeting people’s preferences is more important than pleasure itself. Actions that are moral are those that take into account the preferences of everyone involved. Singer’s ethics includes moral concern for animals and people who are often left out, and he supports causes like veganism and helping people in poverty around the world.
- Ethics of Virtue
Virtue ethics puts more importance on moral character than on rules or consequences. It doesn’t ask, “What should I do?” It asks, “What kind of person should I be?”
Aristotle: The Golden Mean and Eudaimonia
Virtue ethics began with Aristotle (384–322 BCE). He says that the highest good for people is eudaimonia, which is often translated as “flourishing” or “human well-being.”
Aristotle thought that virtue was the Golden Mean, which is the middle ground between two extremes. For instance:
Courage is the middle ground between being a coward and being reckless.
Being generous is somewhere between being cheap and throwing things away.
To be virtuous, you have to practice, get used to it, and think about it. It’s not just a matter of following rules; it’s a lifelong moral journey.
Neo-Aristotelianism today (for example, Alasdair MacIntyre)
Alasdair MacIntyre brought virtue ethics back to life in the modern age with his book After Virtue (1981). He said that modern moral discourse is broken and doesn’t make sense because it has lost touch with how people used to act morally.
MacIntyre stressed how communities, moral stories, and habits shape virtues. He criticizes the individualism of modern ethics and calls for a return to Aristotelian ethics based on a common understanding of what is good for people.
- Contractarianism
According to contractarianism, moral rules come from a social contract, which is an agreement between rational people to make a society with shared responsibilities.
Hobbes, Thomas
Thomas Hobbes wrote in Leviathan (1651) that the state of nature was a place where people were always at war and life was “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.” People agree to give up some of their freedoms to a sovereign authority in exchange for security so they can get away from all this chaos.
Hobbes’ contract is about politics, but it also lays the groundwork for moral obligations. Morality comes from self-interest and mutual benefit when people work together.
The Original Position and Veil of Ignorance by John Rawls
In A Theory of Justice (1971), John Rawls (1921–2002) came up with a very important type of contractarianism. He came up with the original position, a made-up situation in which rational people choose principles of justice while not knowing their race, class, gender, or skills.
This makes sure that things are fair and unbiased. Rawls said that people like this would choose two principles:
Everyone has the same basic freedoms.
The difference principle says that social and economic inequalities must help the people who are the least well-off.
Modern liberal political theory and ideas about distributive justice are based on Rawlsian ethics.
- Ethics of Care
Care ethics came about as a way to criticize traditional ethical theories that put abstract rules ahead of personal relationships.
Gilligan, Carol
In her 1982 book In a Different Voice, Carol Gilligan took issue with moral development theories that were mostly about men, like those of Lawrence Kohlberg. She said that women often put more emphasis on care, empathy, and responsibility in relationships than on justice and rights. Gilligan’s work led to the development of care ethics, which emphasizes being aware of other people’s needs, having emotional intelligence, and the role of context in making moral choices.
Feminist Morality
Feminist ethics builds on care ethics to question moral theories that are based on male ideas. It criticizes how women’s experiences are pushed to the side and calls for moral theories that take into account gender, power dynamics, and oppression.
It stresses:
Instead of autonomy, ethics of interdependence.
Putting a high value on emotional work, caregiving, and being socially vulnerable.
Recognizing that moral agents are in a specific place (no “view from nowhere”).
Moral Principles for Relationships with Others
Care ethics says that morality isn’t just about doing the right thing and being fair; it’s also about caring for others, being responsible, and keeping relationships strong. It doesn’t like how other ethical theories are too rational and focus on the individual. Instead, it stresses how important empathy and being connected are.
- Egoism
Ethical egoism says that people should do what is best for them. Ethical egoism is a normative theory about what people should do, while psychological egoism says that people do act in their own best interests.
Ayn Rand and the idea of rational self-interest
In her book The Virtue of Selfishness, Ayn Rand defended a type of ethical egoism called rational self-interest. She said that altruism is wrong because it means giving up something for someone else, and that everyone has a moral duty to make themselves happy.
Rand’s theory supports:
Being independent and taking care of yourself.
Capitalism as a system of morals.
A refusal to accept ethics based on the state or the group.
Critics say that egoism breaks up society and ignores moral duties to others, especially those who are weak.
- The Theory of Divine Command
According to divine command theory, God decides what is right and wrong. God tells us to do something, so it’s right. God tells us not to do something, so it’s wrong.
What God Says About Morality
Many people who follow religions like Christianity and Islam believe in this idea. The idea is that God is the source of moral law and that religious texts or divine revelation can help us figure out what is right and wrong.
Euthyphro Dilemma: Plato brought up the well-known Euthyphro dilemma:
“Does God command something because it is good, or does something become good because God commands it?”
If the first is true, morality seems random.
If the latter is true, then morality has nothing to do with God.
This problem puts divine command theory’s consistency to the test and is still a major topic in the philosophy of religion.
- Moral Particularism
Jonathan Dancy supports moral particularism, which says that moral judgment doesn’t depend on general rules or principles. The moral importance of features, on the other hand, depends on the situation.
Particularists say:
There are no set moral rules that work in every situation.
In one case, a reason for an action might not be enough to justify it.
It’s important to have a moral sense and be aware of the situation.
This point of view goes against rule-based theories like Kantianism and utilitarianism. Some people say it makes things inconsistent, while others say it better reflects real moral experience.
End
There are many different types of moral philosophy, such as rule-based ethics (deontology), outcome-focused theories (utilitarianism), character-based virtue ethics, relationship-centered care ethics, and individualistic or divine approaches. When put to the test in real-life moral situations, each theory has its strengths and weaknesses. Ethical theories help us better understand our values, motivations, and responsibilities, whether we value duty, happiness, virtue, autonomy, care, or divine authority. Philosophical study of these traditions helps us think more deeply about morality and make better moral decisions in both our private and public lives.
